principles of fractures
INTRODUCTION
A fracture is a break in the structural continuity of bone. It may be no more than a crack, a crumpling or a splintering of the cortex; more often the break is complete and the bone fragments are displaced. If the overlying skin remains intact it is a closed (or simple)fracture; if the skin or one of the body cavities is breached it is an open (or compound) fracture, liable to contamination and infection.
HOW FRACTURES HAPPEN
Bone is relatively brittle, yet it has suffificient strengthand resilience to withstand considerable stress. Fractures result from: (1) injury; (2) repetitive stress;or (3) abnormal weakening of the bone (a ‘pathological’ fracture).
FRACTURES DUE TO INJURY
Most fractures are caused by sudden and excessiveforce, which may be direct or indirect.With a direct force the bone breaks at the point of impact; the soft tissues also are damaged. A direct blow usually splits the bone transversely or may bend it over a fulcrum so as to create a break with a ‘butterflfly’ fragment. Damage to the overlying skin is common; if crushing occurs, the fracture pattern will be comminuted with extensive soft-tissue damage. With an indirect force the bone breaks at a distance from where the force is applied; soft-tissue damage at the fracture site is not inevitable. Although most fractures are due to a combination of forces (twisting,bending, compressing or tension), the x-ray pattern reveals the dominant mechanism:· Twisting causes a spiral fracture;· Compression causes a short oblique fracture.· Bending results in fracture with a triangular ‘butterfly’ fragment;· Tension tends to break the bone transversely; in some situations it may simply avulse a small fragment of bone at the points of ligament or tendon insertion.
NOTE: The above description applies mainly to the long bones. A cancellous bone, such as a vertebra or the calcaneum, when subjected to suffificient force, will split or be crushed into an abnormal shape.

FATIGUE OR STRESS FRACTURES
These fractures occur in normal bone which is subject to repeated heavy loading, typically in athletes, dancers or military personnel who have gruelling exercise programmes. These high loads create minute deformations that initiate the normal process of remodelling – a combination of bone resorption and new bone formation in accordance with Wolff’s law. When exposure to stress and deformation is repeatedand prolonged, resorption occurs faster than replacement and leaves the area liable to fracture. A similar problem occurs in individuals who are on medication that alters the normal balance of bone resorption and replacement; stress fractures are increasingly seen inpatients with chronic inflammatory diseases who are on treatment with steroids or methotrexate.
PATHOLOGICAL FRACTURES
Fractures may occur even with normal stresses if the bone has been weakened by a change in its structure (e.g. in osteoporosis, osteogenesis imperfecta or Paget’s disease) or through a lytic lesion (e.g. a bonecyst or a metastasis).
---from 《Apley’s System of Orthopaedics and Fractures》P687-688
重点词汇整理:
crack n. 裂缝;裂纹v. 使破裂
crumpling adj. 起皱的;扭曲的;崩溃的v. 压皱(crumple的ing形式)
splintering v. 分裂,裂成碎片;冻离;分解(splinter 的现在分词形式)
cortex /ˈkɔːrteks/皮质
bone fragments骨头碎片
displaced v. 取代(displace的过去分词)
overlying skin覆盖的皮肤
intact /ɪnˈtækt/adj. 完整的;原封不动的;未受损伤的
cavities n. 腔(cavity 的复数形式);[医] 空洞;蛀牙;插线孔
breached 美 /briːtʃ/n. 违背,违反;缺口vt. 违反,破坏;打破
liable to contamination and infection.易受污染和感染。
brittle /ˈbrɪtl/adj. 易碎的,脆弱的;易生气的
resilience /rɪˈzɪliəns/n. 恢复力;弹力;顺应力
withstand considerable stress承受相当大的压力
pathological/ˌpæθəˈlɑːdʒɪkl/adj. 病理学的;病态的;由疾病引起的(等于pathologic)
excessive force用力过度
blow v. (风)吹;吹奏;喘气
split n. 劈开;裂缝adj. 劈开的vt. 分离;使分离
transversely /træns'və:sli/adv. 横着;横断地
fulcrum /ˈfʊlkrəm,ˈfʌlkrəm/n. [机][力] 支点;叶附属物
butterflfly’ fragment 蝶形骨块
comminuted /'kɑmə,njʊt/adj. 粉碎的
extensive /ɪkˈstensɪv/adj. 广泛的;大量的;广阔的
inevitable /ɪnˈevɪtəbl/adj. 必然的,不可避免的
combination of forces (twisting,bending, compressing or tension)力的组合(扭转、弯曲、压缩或拉力)
dominant mechanism主要机理
spiral fracture 螺旋形骨折
short oblique fracture 短斜裂缝 /əˈbliːk/n. 倾斜物adj. 斜的;不光明正大的vi. 倾斜
triangular ‘butterfly’ fragment三角形的蝶形骨块
avulse /ə'vʌls/v. 抽出;撕裂,撕脱
ligament or tendon insertion.韧带或肌腱插入
cancellous bone松质骨 /'kænsələs/adj. 多孔的;罗眼状的(等于cancellate)
vertebra /ˈvɜːrtɪbrə/n. [解剖] 椎骨;[解剖] 脊椎
calcaneum /kæl'keiniəm/n. [解剖] 跟骨
subjected to suffificient force 受到足够的力量
FATIGUE /fəˈtiːɡ/n. 疲劳,疲乏;杂役adj. 疲劳的v. 使疲劳
gruelling exercise programmes艰苦的锻炼计划/ˈɡruːəlɪŋ/n. 惩罚;痛打
adj. 折磨人的
minute deformations 微小的变形
/ˈmɪnɪt/n. 分,分钟;片刻,一会儿;备忘录,笔记;会议记录adj. 微小的,详细的 [maɪˈnjuːt; US -ˈnuːt; maɪˋnut]vt. 将…记录下来
remodelling v. 改变……的结构(或形状);重新做(人或物的)模型(remodel 的现在分词)n. (建筑物的形状或结构的)改造,重建
Wolff’s law wolff法则 (骨骼是活的东西,有其自身变化的规律。wolff定律指出:骨骼的生长会受到力学刺激影响而改变其结构。用之则强,废用则弱。)
resorption /ri'sɔ:pʃən, -'zɔ:-, ri:-/n. 再吸收;再吞
liable to fracture 容易断裂 /ˈlaɪəbl/adj. 有责任的,有义务的;应受罚的;有…倾向的;易…的
alter vt. 改变
inpatients /ˈɪnpeɪʃnt/n. 住院病人adj. 住院的
inflammatory /ɪnˈflæmətɔːri/adj. 炎症性的;煽动性的;激动的
steroids or methotrexate 类固醇或甲氨蝶呤
osteoporosis /ˌɑːstioʊpəˈroʊsɪs/n. [外科] 骨质疏松症
osteogenesis imperfecta /,impə'fektə/[外科] 成骨不全症
Paget’s disease paget病(骨骼的Paget病是一种慢性骨瘤样变性,可造成骨的膨胀、畸形、强度减弱,进而形成骨痛,关节炎、畸形和骨折。Paget病的病因多认为与慢性病毒感染有关,有家族史。诊断多在40岁以上人群得出,)
lytic lesion 骨溶解
/'litik/adj. 裂解的,溶解的;溶菌作用的
/ˈliːʒn/n. 损害;身体上的伤害;机能障碍
bonecyst 骨囊肿
metastasis /məˈtæstəsɪs/n. 转移;新陈代谢
百度翻译:
导言
断裂是岩石结构连续性的断裂。它可能只是一个裂缝,一个皱巴巴的皮质或分裂;更多的情况下,断裂是完整的,骨头碎片移位。如果上半部皮肤保持完整,则为闭合性(或单纯性)骨折;如果皮肤或体腔之一破裂,则为开放性(或复合性)骨折,易发生粘连和感染。
骨折是如何发生的
骨相对较脆,但有足够的强度和弹性来承受相当大的应力。骨折的原因是:(1)损伤;(2)重复应力;或(3)骨的异常弱化(病理性骨折)。
外伤性骨折
大多数骨折是由突然的、过度的力量引起的,这种力量可能是直接的,也可能是间接的,直接的力量会使骨头在受到冲击时断裂,软组织也会受到损伤。直接打击通常会使骨头横向断裂,或在支点上弯曲,从而造成骨折,骨折部位为“但不易折断”的碎片。对上覆皮肤的损伤是常见的;如果发生压碎,骨折模式将随着广泛的软组织损伤而改变。在间接力的作用下,骨在距离施加力的地方断裂;骨折部位的软组织损伤并非不可避免。尽管大多数骨折是由多种力量(扭转、弯曲、压缩或拉伸)共同作用的结果,但x射线图揭示了主要的机制:·扭转导致螺旋骨折;·压缩导致短斜角骨折。·弯曲导致骨折出现三角形“但”terfly“碎片;·拉伸倾向于折断骨头横向的;在某些情况下,它可能只是在韧带或肌腱插入处撕下一小块骨头。
注:以上描述主要适用于长骨。松质骨一种松质骨,如椎骨或跟骨,当受到足够的力时,会分裂或被压成不正常的形状。
疲劳或应力断裂
这些骨折发生在正常的骨骼中,通常是在运动员、舞蹈演员或军事人员中,他们经常承受沉重的负荷。这些高负荷会产生微小的变形,从而启动正常的重建过程——根据沃尔夫定律,骨吸收和新骨形成的结合。当重复和延长暴露于应力和变形中时,吸收发生的速度比替换发生的速度快,并使该区域容易骨折。一个类似的问题发生在正在服用药物改变骨吸收和放置的正常平衡的个体中;应力性骨折越来越多地出现在正在使用类固醇或甲氨蝶呤治疗的慢性炎症性疾病住院患者中。
病理性骨折
即使在正常应力下,如果骨头因结构改变(如骨质疏松症、成骨不全或骨病)或溶解性病变(如骨囊肿或转移)而变弱,也可能发生骨折