腹脑&KNOW YOUR BRAIN: VENTRAL TEGMENTAL AREA
拜伦罗宾逊·美国19071907年，美国医学博士拜伦罗宾逊正式出版《腹部和盆腔脑》理论专著，全书有700页的长度，有超过200个详细解剖插图。拜伦罗宾逊认为:"分布在人体腹部和盆腔内的植物神经系统是一种继发性脑，它负责调节内脏功能(节奏，吸收，分泌和营养)。腹脑能够在无颅脑的情况下生活(如无脑儿)，相反颅脑却不能在没有腹脑的情况下生活。" 拜伦罗宾逊认为:腹脑就在两肾之间。他在解剖图片上用红色的文字在左右两侧肾脏和肾上腺标注出腹脑的范围，在中间用黄色标出"腹脑"的具体解剖位置。这是人类第一次给"腹脑"画像。见下图。(罗宾逊，《腹部和盆腔脑》，1907年，第123 -126)拜伦罗宾逊1907年发现的"腹脑"是:位于腹腔内游离的神经网。折叠王锡宁·中国19931993年，中国脑外科医生王锡宁在《医学理论与实践》专业杂志上连续发表两篇论文:《论人体巨系统的解剖构成原理--结绳原理》和《论生物波的数学形态和物理构造》引起媒体广泛关注。《苏州日报》首先报道:"外科医生王锡宁提出医学解剖新观点--人体是由两个对称的身体构成的"。《扬子晚报》再次报道:"中国学者王锡宁发现--人是由两个对称的身体构成的"。王锡宁认为:"传统意义上的人其实是由两个上下、内外反向对称的身体构成的，以颈部为界分别称为颈上人与颈下人。解剖分析证实，颈上人的身体构造为男、女双性体，颈下人的身体构造为男、女单性体。" 当时王锡宁并不知道国外有关研究，因此，在论文中，王锡宁是用"第一中枢和颈上人"来描述头脑，用"第二中枢和颈下人"来描述腹脑。"腹脑"只是"第二中枢和颈下人"的神经组织学部分。见下图。这是人类第二次给"腹脑"画像。(王锡宁. 论生物波的数学形态和物理构造[J ] . 医学理论与实践,1993 ,6(10) :46.)王锡宁1993年发现的"腹脑"是:位于人体躯干。在一次手术中，脑外科医生王锡宁偶然从人体的脑组织外观皱折与肠组织外观皱折有惊人的相似之处受到启发:他通过移植"大陆板块漂移"学说，对人体解剖学的大量资料进行系统的形态学比较研究;当他把人体的消化管腔与脑室管腔两套板块模型漂移对位重叠在一起时，发现两者的解剖系统构成存在严格的对称性。之后他用同样的方法证实:人体的泌尿、生殖、骨骼、循环系统解剖构造形态在颈上人与颈下人之间也存在有严格的对称性。王锡宁的解剖新发现跳出从"神经系统"研究"腹脑"的局限，将研究视野放在"人体巨系统"解剖形态结构的整体相似性与对称性方面，产生了许多惊人的见解比如:找到了颈上人与颈下人唯一的解剖对称定位坐标原点--肝门静脉与垂体门静脉。这些新发现与我们的原有观念都相去甚远，西医的传统解剖学在此处是一片空白。王锡宁在医学形态学方面的基础研究进展对临床医学研究尤其是脑科学研究的影响将是深远的。2006年，王锡宁正式出版《中医解剖学》理论专著。折叠迈克尔·格肖恩·美国19981998年，美国哥伦比亚大学解剖学和细胞生物学教授迈克尔·格肖恩出版了他的《第二大脑》理论专著。迈克尔·格肖恩认为:每个人都有第二个大脑，它位于人的肚子里，负责"消化"食物、信息、外界刺激、声音和颜色。迈克尔·格肖恩1998年发现的腹脑是:位于胃肠壁的神经丛。 '腹脑'位于胃肠壁的神经丛
LOCATION OF VENTRAL TEGMENTAL AREA INDICATED BY BLUE DOT.The ventral tegmental area, or VTA, is in themidbrain, situated adjacent to thesubstantia nigra. Although it contains several different types of neurons, it is primarily characterized by itsdopaminergic neurons, which project from the VTA throughout the brain. The VTA is considered an integral part of a network of structures, together known as thereward system, that are involved in reinforcing behavior.What is the ventral tegmental area and what does it do?The VTA is one of the two major dopaminergic areas in the brain (the other being the substantia nigra). Although there is not a very clear anatomical separation between the VTA and substantia nigra, the areas do seem to differ slightly in where most of their neurons project to. The largest bundle of fibers leaving the substantia nigra, known as thenigrostriatal pathway, projects to thecaudate andputamen (together known as thestriatum). There are several majorefferents that project from the VTA; two of the most prominent are themesolimbic andmesocortical pathways, which travel tolimbic andcortical areas, respectively.WATCH THIS 2-MINUTE NEUROSCIENCE VIDEO TO LEARN MORE ABOUT THE VTA.The variation in the destination of their efferents leads to a divergence in the functions attributed to the VTA and substantia nigra. While the substantia nigra is primarily associated with movement, the VTA is thought to be involved with various cognitive and emotional processes. The functions associated with the VTA are diverse, but it is probably best known for the major role it seems to play in motivation, reward, and addiction.When someone uses a drug of abuse, or attains some otherwise rewarding stimulus, dopamine levels typically rise in thenucleus accumbens, a structure found in thebasal forebrain that is an important part of the reward system. The primary source of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens is neurons that project from the VTA and travel in the mesolimbic pathway. Thus, the VTA is also activated when one experiences something rewarding, and this integral role in the mediation of rewarding experiences has caused some to propose that activity in the VTA may be necessary to the development of addiction.Dopamine is also important to normal cognition and so it is not surprising that the VTA has been implicated in the pathophysiology of disorders other than addiction. For example, dopaminergic neurons in the VTA have been proposed to play a role inschizophrenia, a disorder that is thought by some to be associated with high levels of dopamine. Alternatively,attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) has been linked to low dopamine activity in the VTA. In truth, the dopaminergic projections from the VTA are so extensive that they are likely involved to some degree in a wide variety of normal and pathological behavior, but it is still not very clear exactly what role they play in most cognitive processes---both normal and disordered. It does seem clear, however, that due to the importance of dopamine signaling throughout the brain and the widespread dopaminergic projections of the VTA, the integrity of the VTA is crucial to proper brain function.Reference (in addition to linked text above):Kalivas, P. (1993). Neurotransmitter regulation of dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmental area Brain Research Reviews, 18 (1), 75-113 DOI: 10.1016/0165-0173(93)90008-N